Thoughts on Native American Culture

Whipping Tree, Chickasaw Council House Museum

My Uncle Haskell was an attorney and judge in Pauls Valley, Oklahoma, and a charter member of the Chickasaw Historical Society Board. He explained to me once that for the Indians, especially the full bloods, the concept of land ownership was totally foreign.  

He said that to them, land was like water or air, to be used by each person as needed. Before the white man came, they used land for hunting and for farming, and when game was scarce or during droughts, they moved on. There were boundaries between tribes, which changed with time depending on the size and needs of each tribe, but there was no such thing as land ownership.

After tribal boundaries were imposed by the US government, the Indians set up constitutions which reflected their tribal custom, designating land as common to all. Tribal members could use what they needed, but after their death, the land was returned to the tribe. This caused trouble within the tribe as some took advantage of the law to profit by subletting land to white men. The real tragedy though came in 1903, when tribal governments were dissolved and individuals were issued allotments.

Many Indians were so opposed to the allotment process, that they refused to be included on the tribal rolls compiled by the government, thereby eliminating themselves and their families from receiving allotments, and also future benefits of tribal membership.

It was mainly full bloods, who held onto their traditions more strongly, those who deserved the benefits most, who were left out, and even for those who signed the rolls, the concept of land ownership was so difficult for them that they often signed over title to their allotments for a night on the town. As Uncle Haskell told me, “They didn’t think land was worth anything.” So it wasn’t just that the Indians were opposed to private land ownership of land, they couldn’t even understand the concept.

The tragedy that befell the Indians during the allotment process is described in detail by Angie Debo in her book, “And Still the Waters Run.”

I include this story as an illustration of the tremendous power of culture and tradition to mold the thinking of the members of a group.

The Indians also had no concept of wealth. Often the chief was the poorest person in the tribe because he shared what he had with others. Possessions were shared. Poor or disabled members were taken care of. Even now the Chickasaw have what they call “giveaways.” People take household appliances, clothes, linens, furniture, whatever they don’t need, and give it away to whomever needs it more.

Gifts were even exchanged between enemies as a symbol of good faith. The Europeans didn’t understand this. There is an example in the Roanoke Colony story. During the first exploratory mission the explorers noticed that a cup was missing after a meeting with the Indians, and they retaliated by attacking the village and burning the Indians’ food stores. We have no explanation from the natives’ point of view, but I imagine that they would have expected the Europeans to share what they had.

Another difference in Indian culture I learned from my mother. She told me about the honesty and honor among the Chickasaw. In fact they did not even have jails, or at least not until quite late in their history. When a crime was committed, a date was set for the punishment and the guilty party was told to appear at a certain time and place for his or her punishment, usually lashes, and the guilty one always came to submit to his punishment, even if it was execution. The Chickasaws’ whipping tree has been preserved at their museum in Tishomingo, Oklahoma.

My mother explained that for the Indian the worst punishment wasn’t execution, but banishment from the tribe. An individual’s identity, his or her very existence depended on membership in the tribe.

In tribal society, the very concept of identity was dependent on tribal membership. A warrior’s name was given based on a characteristic or achievement, for instance “Running-deer” or “Ten-killer.” Also tribal members’ names might change from time to time depending on their position or rank. In an article recently published in the Chickasaw history journal, there is a discussion about whether or not the chief Tishominko was in attendance. In the article they say that “Tishumustubbee” is listed, and that in future documents listing Tishominko, Tishumustubbee is not mentioned.

Minko means chief.

Chickasaw society was, is matrilineal, which makes sense in a culture where the men are away much of the time hunting or at war, at risk of losing their lives. Lineage made a difference, and clan (family) membership was important. There were certain clans from which leaders were taken. Clans were thought to have characteristics, such as bravery, wisdom, or hunting ability.

At the same time tribal identity appears to have trumped lineage, or even race! The Chickasaws experienced intermarriage from an early time, especially with Scotch traders and missionaries and these men were adopted by the tribe. For this reason the Chickasaws were better able to negotiate with the government in their treaties. The mixed blood members understood English, and also they understood the the white man’s way of thinking, for instance on the issue of land ownership.

Early in Chickasaw history the Natchez Indian Tribe was decimated by the Spanish and the remnants were adopted by the Chickasaws.

Slavery was commonly practiced by many Indian tribes including the Chickasaws. Captives from raids on other tribes or survivors of battles were often made slaves, or servants, but with time many became members of the tribe. This applied not just to Native Americans though. Black runaway slaves were adopted by the Seminoles in Florida.  In fact, there were some tribes that were predominantly black.   

In the west, the Plains tribes frequently raided white settlements, taking hostages for slaves or ransom, but often adopting them into the tribe, and it was not uncommon for these hostages to refuse to return to their families when they were discovered. In other words, the Indians determined tribal membership not by family membership, but by performance and loyalty.

Thinking about my last article about the Lumbee tribe, I think that the Indians would have accepted the Lumbee as just another tribe, in spite of their genetic heterogeneity.

The tribal culture, the Indians’ concepts of ownership, and tribal identity, served them well possibly for millennia, but they are totally foreign to our way of thinking. I make two conclusions from these observations. First, the tribal culture works. There’s plenty of room for compassion, loyalty, generosity. The members of the group each have a place, they produce what they need, and they have security and support from their community.

The second, and perhaps the more interesting conclusion to me is that, not only is the tribal system efficient, it requires a totally different way of thinking. Its members are not just convinced. They are conditioned to think in a way that supports their system, and their conditioning is so strong that they have difficulty surviving in a different culture.

It makes you wonder, how are we conditioned by our culture? Does this conditioning prevent us from understanding or judging other cultures? Can we see the flaws in our own culture? Would our conditioning prevent us from adapting to another culture?

Chickasaw Festival

Old Chickasaw Capitol in Tishomingo

I had never been to the annual Chickasaw Festival before this year. I was either away from the state, or too busy with my work, but this year I was invited to participate in a book signing there on the release of the book, Wenonah’s Story, that I wrote with my mother.

When I was a child there was no festival. We went to the annual Indian Exposition in Anadarko instead. It’s only been in later years, after the Native American tribes won their sovereignty, the right to organize their own governments, and the right to provide for their own people, that the Chickasaw Festival has come about.

My mother Wenonah lived to see it, and she and my father used to be regulars at the annual meeting and festival. Being there myself was a moving experience, and made me proud of our tribe, and what we’ve accomplished. I say that as if I had something to do with it, but that’s what tradition and heritage can do for you. It can make you feel part of something bigger than yourself.

The celebration was held September 25 through October 3 with events held all over the nation, from Ada, the current site of the Chickasaw government, to “Tish,” or Tishomingo where the old capitol is located, to the Culture Center in Sulphur, to the old Chickasaw community of Kullihoma, to Emet, the home of Douglas Johnston, the last Chickasaw governor before statehood. There were stickball games, a 5-K run, tours of the many Chickasaw facilities around the state, storytelling, craft demonstrations, an art show, a rodeo, cooking classes, the annual princess pageant.

My daughter now has both Chickasaw cook books, and she is an expert in cooking pashofa and corn bread.

Thursday night there was a ceremony recognizing the achievements of outstanding citizens, and the release of the new books published by the Chickasaw Press, the only native American press in the country.

Saturday began with a speech by Governor Anaotubby on the state of the nation. The list of programs and accomplishments was long but the governor has an easy going, engaging way of speaking that kept it from being boring. After the governor’s speech there was a parade – my cousin Homer, as one of the new Hall of Fame inductees, got to ride in it, and then an art show, food, stick ball, book signings, and other activities too numerous to mention.

It’s really awe inspiring what the nation has become: the health programs, the educational programs, the projects to discover and preserve our history, from the archives in Sulphur to archeological projects in Mississippi. Classes to learn to grow traditional plants, cook traditional dishes, to make baskets, stick ball sticks, arrows, to learn Chickasaw legends and tradition, and to even speak our own language. The legal struggle to obtain compensation from the US government for the debts owed the tribe from the time of the removal and statehood is continuing. The tribe is a billion dollar business now, and employs 14,000 people in the state of Oklahoma.

I’m not very well versed on the many government projects and programs, but I know they benefit all of us. My cousin stayed in the nation’s retirement center in his last year, and died in the old Carl Albert hospital. Another cousin has gotten hearing aides and glasses through the tribe, and my grandchildren have received excellent medical care at the new Chickasaw hospital in Ada, and scholarships for college. One of my cousins is able to get meals from the local Chickasaw community center, and the tribe is even going to pay to pave the driveway out to her house.

Chickasaw social services sent a visiting nurse out to see my mother and provided her with some of her medicines during her last years, and some of her friends in Ada even cooked her some pashofa when she became ill for the last time.

You ought to go to the festival next year. It will make you feel proud

Back from the Chickasaw Nation

          Well, I'm back home now. I've been to the Chickasaw Nation.

          My son in law, Kevin, got a job working for the Chickasaws, and I went down with him, Therese my daughter, and their five kids to help with the transition from Spokane, Washington to Indian country. It was exciting for them and for me. In this economy, it's hard to get anything more exciting than a job, and they'll get the secondary benefit of becoming more familiar with their Chickasaw heritage.

          I took them to the National Cowboy Hall of Fame in Oklahoma City, and my grandson, Anthony decided right away that he wanted to become a cowboy. I went to the store to buy him a cowboy toy: a cowboy hat, a lariat rope, a pair of chaps, spurs, anything, without luck. I guess kids don't play cowboys and Indians anymore. When I was a child every little boy had a complete cowboy outfit, complete with six guns, that really popped when you pulled the trigger. I was about his age when I decided that I would rather be an Indian, but I'll give him a little time.

          It was nice to see signs on the road saying: "You Are Now Entering the Chickasaw Nation," "The Kickapoo Nation," "the Seminole Nation," etc. To see buildings labeled Chickasaw Nation Health Service, Hospital, Library, Housing Service. The kids are living in Stonewall, Oklahoma, near Ada, the current headquarters for the Chickasaw government offices. They are staying in Chickasaw housing: a nice house with a big yard. The neighborhood has a play ground, and no through streets. The brand new Chickasaw hospital is right across the road.

          After Therese and Kevin got settled, I couldn't resist going to Tishomingo, the old Chickasaw Capital. "Tish," as it is called, is only 40 miles south of Ada. The old capital building was built of native stone back in 1898, the year my grandparents were married. Ironically it was also the same year that Congress voted to dissolve the Governments of the Five Civilized Tribes. The tribe sold the building to Johnson County in 1910 for $7500. The county charged the Chickasaws $575,000 to buy it back in 1992, over 76 times what they paid for it. "Highway robbery" is a term that comes to mind.

          Anyway, the Chickasaws have converted it into a museum and a park. There are commemorative bricks laid out in front with the names of people who contributed to the renovation. My parents, my uncle Haskell and his wife Carrie, and my grandmother are all included. The building is beautiful. I'll include a picture:

          Outside the building is the original bell that was rung to call the legislature into session, and also upon the death of anyone in the community. The site of the old well is marked as well as the jail. The Chickasaws had no jail until late in their history. There was no need because no one would dishonor himself or his family by failing to appear for his punishment, no matter how severe. The main punishment was whipping, and in the museum one of the old whipping posts is preserved. 

          There is a museum in the capital building, but the main museum is in the old Council House next door. There is a re-creation of a Council room inside, Stick ball sticks, a Choctaw Bible and hymnal (the Chickasaws for many years didn't want their language written down), a large rock that originally marked the boundary of the Nation, arrow heads and bows, authentic clothing, and cases with pictures of outstanding Chickasaw citizens, with their stories.

          The main reason for my trip however was to look at the material donated to the museum by my mother and by my Uncle Haskell. I spent the better part of one day there, going through the pictures and documents and artifacts. Most of what they have, I had seen before, because my mother kept copies. They also have Grandmother's wedding ring and her shotgun - I didn't realize it was so old - 1897. I wish they had her side saddle. Haskell donated an old Indian bow made of bois d' arc - I saw it when he got it - during the 60's, I think. Engraved on the inside of Grandmother's ring is Vic and Bill, 1898.  

          I guess the most exciting find for me was an Oklahoma History book, written by Luther B Hill in 1920. It is a two volume set and they are engraved on the covers with William H. Paul, my grandfather. What I was after was an article about my grandfather.  My mother told me it was there, and sure enough, I found it. It occupies about a half a page. Amazingly, he's the only Paul who is profiled. I was hoping that it would mention something about him serving in the Chickasaw legislature, but it doesn't. It does give some specifics about his education. I copied several pages out of the book. It profiles Sam Garvin - I didn't know that he died in 1910. Peter Maytubby is profiled, and it mentions his mother, Kaliteyo, my great great aunt. I would like to spend a few days with it, looking up other family members and seeing the author's description of historical events. It should give me an idea of the opinions current in 1920.

          The other thing my mother donated was a lot of newspaper clippings, and some of the articles I hadn't read before. One story in particular that was told by my uncle Haskell about a Mr. J. F. Trimmer. It was published in the Pauls Valley County Advocate in 1990 by Adrienne Grimmett, the president of the Pauls Valley Historical Society. My mother had also told me a story about the Trimmer family. Their house was by Rush Creek, which flooded annually, and she and her brothers stayed there once when the Creek was too high to cross, but back to Uncle Haskell's story.

          Mr. Trimmer was the first Treasurer of Garvin County, and a highly respected man. Haskell described him:

          Mr. Trimmer was a "fleshy" man; and when we saw him drive by our house in his one seated buggy he always sat right in the middle and the springs showed they were carrying some weight; if Mrs. Trimmer, or one of the boys was with him, then the side Mr. Trimmer was on would be pushed down so low that it made the buggy appear as if it had a strong spring on one side and a broken spring on the other.

          In addition to his court house duties, Mr. Trimmer kept a good large number of hogs on the then vacant half block at the rear of his house. He also kept a green Mexican Parrot in a cage on the back porch. And this parrot was profane! It learned its profanity from Mr. Trimmer. It happened this way: When Mr. Trimmer would go into the feed shed to get feed ready for the hogs, the hogs would start squealing which is a manner hogs have of telling that they are hungry. Every time a feed bucket was banged, or any sound whatever that came from the feed room, the pigs would squeal all the louder, and the longer they had to wait the more insistent they became.

          Usually, before Mr. Trimmer could get his hogs fed, they had set up an incessant din -- and for anyone at all with nerves it was enough to bring a loud vocal response from the feeder; and it helps more if some profanity is mixed in with good plain English. This is the way Mr. Trimmer responded to the greedy noisy shouts. He not only mixed profanity with plain simple English, but sometimes it sounded the other way around. He mixed plain English with the profanity.

          The Mexican green head could see and hear all these "goings on" from his perch on the back porch-- and he thus learned the good art of purposeful profanity. He (or she) could do it just about as well as Mr. Trimmer. The only thing was the parrot would not cuss unless the pigs squealed first.

          It was real funny to me and my brother Homer. As soon as Mr. Trimmer came into view, the hogs would start coming from all directions toward the feed troughs near the shed. Then as soon as the first bucket was banged, the squealing started-- then in a few moments when the crescendo reached a certain pitch, the "cussin" started on the part of both Mr. Trimmer and the Green Headed parrot.

          Some mischievous boys in our neighborhood learned that the parrot would swear if the pigs would squeal; and that all they needed to start the chain reaction of squealing and "cussin" was to knock two of Mr. Trimmer's feed buckets together. When this happened the pigs would squeal and the parrot would "cuss" -- and it would last for 10 or 15 minutes -- especially if it was late afternoon.

          Once Mr. Trimmer was real bad sick and the minister was there to visit. My mother was there too. Before the minister left, he of course said a prayer for Mr. Trimmer's speedy recovery. About the time the preacher was well into his prayer someone outside hit a feed bucket. It was close to feeding time in late afternoon. The squealing started and the parrot started in dead earnest. The prayer was brought to rather an abrupt close. The visitation was ended too. My mother said it was "distracting" to have to listen to that vile, cursing parrot with the pigs squealing while the minister was trying to pray -- and especially realizing how sick Mr. Trimmer was.

          As you can tell, I had a great time in "Tish." I hope I can go back again soon and look into more history.

Chickasaw Removal, Part I

                                                       Tishomingo

          When my mother told me about the Chickasaw "Trail of Tears" she said: "The Chickasaws had leaders who could understand the treaties, so the government couldn't cheat us. Also the Chickasaws were wealthy. We moved ourselves." I still think that's a pretty good summary of the Chickasaw Removal.

          Like the other Five Civilized Tribes, the Chickasaws adapted to the ways of the white man. At the time of the Removal the Chickasaws had written laws; most had given up hunting to become farmers; many were educated and spoke English, and like the other tribes, the Chickasaws had mixed blood citizens who had become prosperous and influential.

          In spite of these changes, the Chickasaws, like the other Five Civilized Tribes, were labeled as "savages" by the state and federal governments. Their rights and previous treaties with the U S government were disregarded, and they were pushed out of their ancient homeland, without planning or consideration for their safety or well being.  

          Although the Indian tribes had been pushed aside by white settlers since the 'discovery' of America by the Europeans, the official policy of removal actually started in 1802, when the federal government made an agreement with Georgia to extinguish the Indian title to lands within the state. Of course, no one consulted the Indians about the "Georgia Compact," as it was called.

          It was during the administration of President James Monroe that Georgia ramped up it's demand for the federal government to deliver on its promise. Monroe had decided, again without asking the Indians, that they would be better off living far away from white settlers. He felt that removal would not only "shield them from impending ruin, but promote their welfare and happiness," because they had not progressed enough to deal with civilization. Monroe thought that forceful removal would be "revolting to humanity, and utterly unjustifiable." Instead, he proposed a more gentle strategy.  

          President Monroe's advisors suggested that he approach the Chickasaws first. They had signed away land in 1806, 1816, and 1818, and their chiefs appeared to be susceptible to bribes, but in 1824, when Secretary of War, John Calhoun, approached Levi Colbert, the Chickasaw Principal Chief, about ceding the rest of the Chickasaw land to the U S and moving west, he was given a flat refusal. What the government 'experts' didn't understand was that the land previously ceded by the Chickasaws was hunting land which was depleted of game and therefore useless. What remained was their homeland, and they had no intention of parting with it.

          Two years later, in 1826, President Monroe sent commissioners to the Chickasaw Council to argue, or rather threaten that if the Chickasaws remained where they were the laws of the United States would be extended to them. Again, speaking for the Council, Chief Levi Colbert repeated his refusal:

        We have no lands to exchange for any other. We wish our father to extend his protection to us here as he proposes to do west of the Mississippi as we apprehend we would in a few years experience the same difficulties in any other part of the country that might be suitable to us west of the Mississippi. Our father the president wishes that we should come under the laws of the United States. We are a people that are not enlightened and we cannot consent to be under your government. If we should consent we should be likened unto young corn growing and met with a drought that would kill it.

          What Colbert said was prophetic. It was only a few years before the Chickasaws would face the same problems in the west.

          Meanwhile the Chickasaws had been dealing with the same problems as the other tribes. White intruders stole the Chickasaws' timber and their livestock. They planted crops on Indian land, and they sold whiskey. As early as 1810 federal troops were sent to evict white squatters after the Chickasaws had threatened to drive them out themselves. In 1828 a Chickasaw man was beaten by white thieves attempting to steal his livestock, and federal troops were sent again.

          The Chickasaws could see the handwriting on the wall. In 1828 they sent an exploring party west to look at the land the government was offering them. While in Indian Territory, they met the Choctaw delegation, there on a similar mission, and the two parties went on a hunt together. Unlike the Choctaws, the Chickasaws weren't impressed. They told the commissioners they hadn't seen any land in the west to compare with their homeland.  

          Andrew Jackson had been elected President in 1828. In 1829 Mississippi extended its laws to the Indians, and outlawed their tribal government. The Chickasaws, like the Choctaws and Cherokees, appealed to President Jackson.  He responded in his usual patronizing manner:

          To these laws, where you are, you must submit; - there is no preventive, no other alternative. Your great father cannot, nor can congress, prevent it. … Do you believe that you can live under these laws? That you can surrender all your ancient habits, and the forms by which you have been so long controlled: … Where you are, it is not possible you can live contented and happy.  

          In 1830 the Indian Removal Act was passed by Congress, and in August of the same year Jackson invited the Chickasaws and Choctaws to Franklin, Tennessee, to discuss removal. This was the meeting the Choctaws missed because of the conflict between their chiefs Leflore and Mushulatubby. (see post of 11/3/10) The Chickasaws negotiated with the President and signed a treaty. The Mississippians were ecstatic. They threw a party for Jackson in Natchez and toasted his success:

          He found one half of our territory occupied by a few wandering Indians. He will leave it in the cultivation of thousands of grateful freemen.

          But the Mississippians were premature in their celebration. The Chickasaws were careful by nature. It probably came from being a small tribe which had always been surrounded by enemies. They again sent a party west to explore. This time they extended their search into Mexico, in the present state of Texas. When the exploring party returned, Chief Colbert wrote a letter requesting that the President attempt to purchase land for the tribe in Mexico along the Sabine River, adding that "we see no other country which we think would suit us so well." Jackson ignored the request. The treaty had been contingent on the Chickasaws finding "a country suitable to their wants," so the Franklin Treaty was nullified.

          Many incidents occurred that proved to the Chickasaws that the federal government would no longer protect their sovereignty. Probably the most insulting was when the highest ranking of the Chickasaw chiefs, Tishomingo, was arrested and thrown in a Mississippi jail for confiscating the goods of two traders who illegally opened a store in the Chickasaw domain. Tishomingo was fined $500.

          Finally, the Monroe County circuit court, which claimed jurisdiction over the Chickasaws, ruled that the congressional acts governing trade and intercourse with Indian tribes became obsolete when Mississippi extended their laws over the Chickasaw tribe. The Cherokees had already failed in their two appeals to the Supreme Court when the Chickasaws decided to negotiate again.

          In October, 1832, the Chickasaw Council met with U S commissioners at Pontotoc Creek, in Mississippi, and negotiated their final treaty. This treaty was carefully crafted by the Chickasaws, and several amendments were made later. The agreement was different from that of any of the other tribes. It was a monument to the Chickasaws' careful planning and forethought.

          The Treaty of Pontotoc Creek, much like the other removal treaties, provided for the survey and sale of the Chickasaw lands in Mississippi, but unlike the other treaties, the Chickasaws insisted that the money from the sale of the lands be put into a tribal fund. This fund was to be used to purchase land for a new home in Indian Territory, and to pay the expenses of the Removal. The remainder was to be placed into a trust fund, with the interest to be used to provide an annuity for tribal members. The Chickasaws also insisted that the temporary allotments made to Chickasaw citizens pending removal be made in "fee simple." In other words, each individual held title to their property. Finally, in order to protect uneducated tribal members from being swindled out of their property, the Chickasaws set up a tribal commission to oversee the disposal of individual property and improvements belonging to uneducated tribal members, or "incompetents," thus preventing the impoverishment of full bloods that occurred in every other tribe.

          Next, the Chickasaws had to deal with their brothers the Choctaws. There were several problems. First, the Choctaws didn't want to sell any of their land. Second, they wanted the Chickasaws to join them instead of remaining a separate tribe. This was unacceptable to the Chickasaws. They didn't intend to escape the oppression of the state of Georgia only to become an insignificant minority in the much larger Choctaw tribe. Also the Chickasaws were afraid that the much poorer Choctaws would try to take control of the Chickasaw funds.

          The two tribes met in 1835 and again in 1836. They reached a compromise in the Treaty of Doaksville signed January, 1837. The Choctaws agreed to sell about 1/3 of their land to the Chickasaws for $530,000. The Chickasaws would become full citizens of the Choctaw tribe but they would retain control of their own funds. 

          With this agreement the Chickasaws completed their negotiations to move west. Their citizens were now in a better situation those of any other tribe. This they had achieved without the internal conflict that had torn the other tribes apart. They had also dealt successfully with the U S government. There would be no military roundup, no stockades, no Chickasaws marching barefoot in freezing weather through the Arkansas swamps, and the Chickasaws would emerge from their removal the richest of the Five Civilized Tribes.

          Why?

          Firstly the Chickasaws were unified. Unlike the Cherokee, Choctaw and Creek tribes, the Chickasaws had no mavericks who signed treaties on their own. The Chickasaw mixed blood leaders worked through the traditional Chickasaw council. The opinions of the full bloods were respected, and they concurred with the decisions.

          Secondly the Chickasaws were realistic. When their options were exhausted they proceeded to removal. There was no passive or active resistance like there was among the Seminole, Cherokee, and Creek tribes, so the Chickasaws avoided the violence and humiliation suffered by those tribes.

          I think that the Chickasaw Removal is one of the most remarkable episodes in Chickasaw history, another example of the Chickasaws' ability to work together to overcome adversity.

          The Chickasaws' struggle wasn't over after the treaties were signed however. They still had to make the long journey west, and they would suffer much as the other tribes did on their own "Trail of Tears." There's a lot more to tell.